A policy is typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes. The term is not normally used to denote what is actually done, this is normally referred to as either procedure or protocol. Policies are generally adopted by the Board of or senior governance body within an organization whereas procedures or protocols would be developed and adopted by senior executive officers. Policies can assist in both subjective and objective decision making. Policies to assist in subjective decision making would usually assist senior management with decisions that must consider the relative merits of a number of factors before making decisions and as a result are often hard to objectively test e.g. work-life balance policy. In contrast policies to assist in objective decision making are usually operational in nature and can be objectively tested e.g. password policy.

A Policy can be considered as a "Statement of Intent" or a "Commitment". For that reason at least, the decision-makers can be held accountable for their "Policy".

The term may apply to government, private sector organizations and groups, and individuals. Presidential executive orders, corporate privacy policies, and parliamentary rules of order are all examples of policy. Policy differs from rules or law. While law can compel or prohibit behaviors (e.g. a law requiring the payment of taxes on income), policy merely guides actions toward those that are most likely to achieve a desired outcome.

Policy or policy study may also refer to the process of making important organizational decisions, including the identification of different alternatives such as programs or spending priorities, and choosing among them on the basis of the impact they will have. Policies can be understood as political, management, financial, and administrative mechanisms arranged to reach explicit goals.'''

Impact

Intended effects

The intended effects of a policy vary widely according to the organization and the context in which they are made. Broadly, policies are typically instituted to avoid some negative effect that has been noticed in the organization, or to seek some positive benefit.

Corporate purchasing policies provide an example of how organizations attempt to avoid negative effects. Many large companies have policies that all purchases above a certain value must be performed through a purchasing process. By requiring this standard purchasing process through policy, the organization can limit waste and standardize the way purchasing is done.

The State of California provides an example of benefit-seeking policy. In recent years, the numbers of hybrid cars in California has increased dramatically, in part because of policy changes in Federal law that provided USD $1,500 in tax credits (since phased out) as well as the use of high-occupancy vehicle lanes to hybrid owners (no longer available for new hybrid vehicles). In this case, the organization (state and/or federal government) created an effect (increased ownership and use of hybrid vehicles) through policy (tax breaks, highway lanes).

Unintended effects

Policies frequently have side effects or unintended consequences. Because the environments that policies seek to influence or manipulate are typically complex adaptive systems (e.g. governments, societies, large companies), making a policy change can have counterintuitive results. For example, a government may make a policy decision to raise taxes, in hopes of increasing overall tax revenue. Depending on the size of the tax increase, this may have the overall effect of reducing tax revenue by causing capital flight or by creating a rate so high that citizens are deterred from earning the money that is taxed. (See the Laffer curve.)

The policy formulation process typically includes an attempt to assess as many areas of potential policy impact as possible, to lessen the chances that a given policy will have unexpected or unintended consequences. Because of the nature of some complex adaptive systems such as societies and governments, it may not be possible to assess all possible impacts of a given policy.

Policy cycle

In political science the policy cycle is a tool used for the analyzing of the development of a policy item. It can also be referred to as a "stagist approach". One standardized version includes the following stages: # Agenda setting (Problem identification) # Policy Formulation # Adoption # Implementation # Evaluation

An eight step policy cycle is developed in detail in ''The Australian Policy Handbook'' by Peter Bridgman and Glyn Davis: (now with Catherine Althaus in its 4th edition)

# Issue identification # Policy analysis # Policy instrument development # Consultation (which permeates the entire process) # Coordination # Decision # Implementation # Evaluation

The Althaus, Bridgman & Davis model is heuristic and iterative. It is intentionally normative and not meant to be diagnostic or predictive. Policy cycles are typically characterized as adopting a classical approach. Accordingly some postmodern academics challenge cyclical models as unresponsive and unrealistic, preferring systemic and more complex models. They consider a broader range of actors involved in the policy space that includes civil society organisations, the media, intellectuals, think tanks or policy research institutes, corporations, lobbyists, etc.

Content

Policies are typically promulgated through official written documents. Policy documents often come with the endorsement or signature of the executive powers within an organization to legitimize the policy and demonstrate that it is considered in force. Such documents often have standard formats that are particular to the organization issuing the policy. While such formats differ in form, policy documents usually contain certain standard components including :

A purpose statement, outlining why the organization is issuing the policy, and what its desired effect or outcome of the policy should be.

An applicability and scope statement, describing who the policy affects and which actions are impacted by the policy. The applicability and scope may expressly exclude certain people, organizations, or actions from the policy requirements. Applicability and scope is used to focus the policy on only the desired targets, and avoid unintended consequences where possible.

An effective date which indicates when the policy comes into force. Retroactive policies are rare, but can be found.

A responsibilities section, indicating which parties and organizations are responsible for carrying out individual policy statements. Many policies may require the establishment of some ongoing function or action. For example, a purchasing policy might specify that a purchasing office be created to process purchase requests, and that this office would be responsible for ongoing actions. Responsibilities often include identification of any relevant oversight and/or governance structures.

Policy statements indicating the specific regulations, requirements, or modifications to organizational behavior that the policy is creating. Policy statements are extremely diverse depending on the organization and intent, and may take almost any form.

Some policies may contain additional sections, including:

Background, indicating any reasons, history, and intent that led to the creation of the policy, which may be listed as motivating factors. This information is often quite valuable when policies must be evaluated or used in ambiguous situations, just as the intent of a law can be useful to a court when deciding a case that involves that law.

Definitions, providing clear and unambiguous definitions for terms and concepts found in the policy document.

Typologies

Policy addresses the intent of the organization, whether government, business, professional, or voluntary. Policy is intended to affect the 'real' world, by guiding the decisions that are made. Whether they are formally written or not, most organizations have identified policies.

Policies may be classified in many different ways. The following is a sample of several different types of policies broken down by their effect on members of the organization.

Distributive policies

Distributive policies extend goods and services to members of an organization, as well as distributing the costs of the goods/services amongst the members of the organization. Examples include government policies that impact spending for welfare, public education, highways, and public safety, or a professional organization's benefits plan.

Regulatory policies

Regulatory policies, or mandates, limit the discretion of individuals and agencies, or otherwise compel certain types of behavior. These policies are generally thought to be best applied when good behavior can be easily defined and bad behavior can be easily regulated and punished through fines or sanctions. An example of a fairly successful public regulatory policy is that of a speed limit.

Constituent policies

Constituent policies create executive power entities, or deal with laws. Constituent policies also deal with Fiscal Policy in some circumstances.

Miscellaneous policies

Policies are dynamic; they are not just static lists of goals or laws. Policy blueprints have to be implemented, often with unexpected results. Social policies are what happens 'on the ground' when they are implemented, as well as what happens at the decision making or legislative stage.

When the term policy is used, it may also refer to:

Official government policy (legislation or guidelines that govern how laws should be put into operation)

Broad ideas and goals in political manifestos and pamphlets

A company or organization's policy on a particular topic. For example, the equal opportunity policy of a company shows that the company aims to treat all its staff equally.

The actions the organization actually takes may often vary significantly from stated policy. This difference is sometimes caused by political compromise over policy, while in other situations it is caused by lack of policy implementation and enforcement. Implementing policy may have unexpected results, stemming from a policy whose reach extends further than the problem it was originally crafted to address. Additionally, unpredictable results may arise from selective or idiosyncratic enforcement of policy.

Types of policy analysis include:

Causal (resp. non-causal)

Deterministic (resp. stochastic, randomized and sometimes non-deterministic)

Index

Memoryless (e.g. non-stationary)

Opportunistic (resp. non-opportunistic)

Stationary (resp. non-stationary)

These qualifiers can be combined, so for example you could have a stationary-memoryless-index policy.

Types

Company Policy

Communications and Information Policy

Human resource policies

Privacy policy

Public policy

* Defense policy

* Domestic policy

* Economic policy

* Education policy

* Energy policy

* Environmental Policy

* Foreign policy

* Health policy

* Housing policy

* Information policy

* Macroeconomic policy

* Monetary policy

* Population policy

* Public policy in law

* Science policy

* Security policy

* Social policy

* Transportation policy

* Urban policy

* Water policy

Other uses of the term

In enterprise architecture for systems design, policy appliances are technical control and logging mechanisms to enforce or reconcile policy (systems use) rules and to ensure accountability in information systems.

In insurance, policies are contracts between insurer and insured used to indemnify (protect) against potential loss from specified perils. While these documents are referred to as policies, they are in actuality a form of contract - see insurance contract.

In gambling, policy is a form of an unsanctioned lottery, where players purport to purchase ''insurance'' against a chosen number being picked by a legitimate lottery. Or can refer to an ordinary Numbers game

In artificial intelligence planning and ''reinforcement learning'', a policy prescribes a non-empty deliberation (sequence of actions) given a non-empty sequence of states.

In debate, the term "policy" is slang for policy or cross-examination debate.

See also

Mandate (politics)

Overton window

Policy alienation

Policy analysis

Policy studies

Political science

Program evaluation

Public administration

Public health

Public policy (law)

Public policy schools

Public services

Social contract

Social welfare

Social work

Think tank

References

Howard, Cosmo. "The Policy Cycle: a Model of Post-Machiavellian Policy Making?" The Australian Journal of Public Administration, September 2005.

Stone, Diane."Global Public Policy, Transnational Policy Communities and their Networks", ''Journal of Policy Sciences'', 2008

External links

Category:Government * Category:Politics by issue Category:Decision theory

da:Policy de:Policy ko:정책 hi:नीति id:Kebijakan it:Policy (politica) he:מדיניות nl:Beleid ja:政策 sv:Policy yi:פאליסי zh:政策

Name	Simon Darby
birth date	November 08, 1964
Birth place	West Bromwich, West Midlands, England
Death date
Office	Deputy Chairman of the British National Party
Leader	Nick Griffin
Term start	2007
Term end	1 July 2010
Predecessor	Scott McLean
Successor	''Currently Vacant''
office2	Dudley Metropolitan Borough Council Castle & Priory Ward
term start2	1 May 2003
term end2	10 June 2004
majority2	173 (7%)
predecessor2	Hall, Peter Robert
successor2	Finch, Joseph Alan
Party	British National Party
Nationality	British
Footnotes	}}

Simon Darby (born 8 November 1964) is a British politician and former Deputy Chairman of the British National Party.

Background

By occupation a computer communications consultant, Darby began his political career in the National Democrats, most of whose activity was centred around his West Midlands base. Darby joined the BNP when his local National Democrat group defected to the party en bloc; he soon became associated with the modernising wing of the party led by Nick Griffin. He was appointed local organiser following Griffin's election as leader, and was courted for membership by the Freedom Party upon their foundation, although he refused to leave the BNP.

Darby's involvement in local politics led to him being elected to Dudley Metropolitan Borough Council in 2003, although he lost the seat in a round of elections the following year. Despite this loss, Darby remained one of the leading figures in the BNP, to the extent that Griffin, who in 2005-06 faced jail before being cleared of inciting racial hatred, designated Darby as party leader should he have been imprisoned.

Darby stood in the 2007 Welsh National Assembly Elections in the North Wales region but was not elected.

Later party career

Newspaper reports identify Darby as the BNP's deputy leader in 2007. He became a personal assistant to Richard Barnbrook following the latter's election as the BNP's representative on the Greater London Authority in May 2008. In this capacity Darby in November 2008 faced criticism after admitting to carrying out BNP party political work from his office as Barnbrook's assistant at City Hall; Darby denied that he used GLA resources and said that he always made up any office hours spent on party activities.

Darby was in 2009 criticized after pictures showed a member of an Italian political rally giving a Fascist style salute while Darby spoke on stage. When asked about the incident, Darby responded, "I can't do anything about that. There were 500 people and three of them were caught doing that stupid behaviour." In May of the same year he clashed with archbishop Dr John Sentamu: Sentamu had condemned the BNP for labelling British citizens of African and Asian descent as "racial foreigners"; Defending his comments Darby insisted that "If I went there and preached down to those indigenous people in the same way that Sentamu does to us then I’d be attacked. If I was derogatory, condescending and arrogant - because that’s what John Sentamu is - I would be attacked. And rightly so."

On Thursday 1st of July 2010 Simon resigned his role as Deputy Chairman citing impartiality regarding the then forthcoming 2010 BNP leadership election challenge, stating on his blog "I didn’t really want to be drawn into the leadership question, however, it seems the inevitable has happened, with adversaries of Nick Griffin raising the issue of the position of Deputy Leader in general, and referring to me in particular. As you know, the position carries absolutely no constitutional weight, and I feel it totally unfair and underhand, in a potential contest that involves solely the leader of the party, that some are seeking to confuse matters by bringing up the position of Deputy". He continues to play a leading role in the party alongside Nick Griffin as National Media spokesman.

Personal Life

A keen angler and ornithologist, Simon has a Bsc (Hons) in Biology & Chemistry.

Elections contested

UK Parliament elections National Democrats (UK)Dudley North (UK Parliament constituency)Dudley North (UK Parliament constituency)Stoke-on-Trent Central (UK Parliament constituency)

Date of election !! Constituency !! Party !! Votes !! %
United Kingdom general election, 1997	1997	Dudley North (UK Parliament constituency)>Dudley North	NDs ||	469	1.0
United Kingdom general election, 2001	2001	Dudley North ||	British National Party>BNP	1,822	4.7
United Kingdom general election, 2005	2005	Dudley North ||	British National Party>BNP	4,022	9.7
United Kingdom general election, 2010	2010	Stoke-on-Trent Central ||	British National Party>BNP	2,502	7.7

Welsh Assembly elections (Additional members region; party list)

! Date of election	! Region	! Party	! Votes	! Percentage of votes	! Result
			9,986	5.1	Not elected

European Parliament elections

National Democrats (UK)

Date of election !! Constituency !! Party !! Votes !! % !! Notes
1996	Merseyside West (European Parliament constituency)>Merseyside West	NDs ||	718	1.2	Single member constituencies

BNP West Midlands (European Parliament constituency)West Midlands (European Parliament constituency)

Year !! Region !! Party !! Votes !! % !! Results !! Notes
European Parliament election, 1999 (United Kingdom)	1999	West Midlands (European Parliament constituency)>West Midlands	|	14,344	1.7	Not elected	Multi member constituencies; party list
European Parliament election, 2004 (United Kingdom)	2004	West Midlands ||	BNP	107,794	7.5	Not elected	Multi member constituencies; party list
European Parliament election, 2009 (United Kingdom)	2009	West Midlands ||	BNP	121,967	8.6	Not elected	Multi member constituencies; party list

References

External links

Simon Darby's blog

The Simon Darby Show

Episodes of The Simon Darby Show

BNP website

Category:British National Party politicians Category:1964 births Category:Living people Category:People from West Bromwich Category:Councillors in the West Midlands (county) Category:English far-right politicians

Robert J. Naiman (born 31 July 1947) is a professor in both the School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences and the College of Forest Resources at the University of Washington in Seattle. He also holds the UNESCO Chair in Sustainable Rivers at the University of Washington.

Dr. Naiman is best known for his work on the ecology of rivers and riparian areas. His work to understand the biogeochemical cycling and role of animals in altering river and riparian systems have been particularly influential. Dr. Naiman started researching the Queets River in Washington State in 1992 and has since been nicknamed "Dr. Queets" by the Seattle press from his continuing research on that river.

Education

Bachelor of Science, Zoology, 1969, California State Polytechnic UniversityMaster of Arts, Zoology and Ichthyology, 1971, University of California, Los Angeles Doctor of Philosophy, Zoology and Ecosystem Science, 1974, Arizona State UniversityHonorary Doctor of Philosophy, Université Paul Sabatier (Toulouse, France)

Key Appointments

UNESCO Chair in Sustainable RiversCoastal Rivers Research Consortium (CRRC)

Chair, Organizing Committee

DIVERSITAS International (Paris, France)

Chair, FreshwaterBIODIVERSITY

Member, Scientific Advisory Committee

Member, U.S. National Committee

UNESCO International Hydrology Programme (Paris, France)

Chair, IHP/MAB Ecohydrology Programme

Robert W. Woodruff Foundation - J.W. Jones Ecological Research Center

Scientific Advisor

Global Water System Project (GWSP; Bonn, Germany)

Member, Executive Committee

Member, Scientific Advisory Committee

References

Category:1947 births Category:Living people Category:University of Washington faculty